Fluid dinamics mimic quantum mechanics

Researchers succeeded to produce the fluidic analogue of a classic quantum experiment in which electrons are confined to a circular "corral" by a ring of ions. In their experiment they filled a circular tray with silicone oil and made it vibrate at a rate just below that required to produce surface waves. When they dropped a single droplet on the surface it began to bounce up and down producing waves that hit the wall, interfered with each other and kept moving the droplet around. At first glance the movement of the droplet seemed chaotic but as time passed and data gathered, it turned out that it was following a decent probability distribution. This pattern is very similar to the movement of an electron placed in a ring of ions.

Although this experiment may seem to most of us as yet another analogy in nature, the situation is much more serious than that! Quantum phenomena are usually unique to our microcosm and are hard to mimic on a macroscopic scale. This experiment is one of the few that helps our limited imagination to have a tiny grasp on the world of subatomic particles and get a clearer picture of quantum mechanics, a discipline that, according to the famous physicist Richard Feynman, "nobody understands".

Full Moon causing bad sleep proven

It has long been known that many people have poor sleep and find it difficult to fall asleep around the full moon. Scientists for the first time report strong evidence that the lunar cycle seems to influence human sleep, even when we do not 'see' the moon and are not aware of the actual moon phase. While they monitored the sleep of 33 volunteers it turned out that around the full moon brain activity related to deep sleep drops by 30 percent, it takes on average five minutes longer to fall asleep, and the length of overall sleep time is twenty minutes shorter.

Although the correlation between moon phases and sleep can be measured, the underlying causes are yet to be discovered. This research will likely encourage scientists too look for a circalunar clock in the human brain. Given that we have a circadian clock defined by the Sun, maybe a circalunar one as well, is it possible that the rhythm of other nearby celestial objects can also have an influence on us? If it is so scientists will have to reconsider the theorems of an old pseudoscience - astrology. One of the tasks of astrologers in ancient times was to find connections between the movement of planets (including the Sun and the Moon) and the behavior of people. Scientists working on this research seem to do the same job but with modern empirical methodology. Maybe in the future modern science will be able to merge ancient and contemporary wisdom and ascertain the truths lying in old pseudoscientific schools little by little.

Planting false memories in mice

Neuroscientists for the first time succeeded in planting false memories in the brains of mice. Using a technology called optogenetics they managed to mix up the memories of mice about two different chambers. In a three day experiment mice were first put into chamber A where they became familiarized with a harmless environment. On the second day they were placed in chamber B where they received a mild foot shock. However, at the moment of the shock researchers used light to activate the cells encoding the memory of chamber A. With this method they achieved to incept a false memory and connect the unpleasant feeling of the electric shock to the memories of chamber A instead of chamber B where the shocks actually happened. When mice were put back again in chamber A they froze in fear even though the chamber was harmless.

If you have seen the movie The Manchurian Candidate you probably freak out now just as the mice did in chamber A by the idea of changing the contents of existing memories by external means. We could say that this method holds the potential to cure PTSD and similar syndromes in the future but at the same time we can easily imagine what purpose this technology could serve if it fell into the wrong hands. Anyway, it is interesting to see that the memories that make up and define our personality are so fragile and susceptible to physical influence.

Read more about the research here.

Dolphins use names

Dolphins have long been viewed as one of the most intelligent species on Earth besides humans. Their communication and learning abilities are outstanding. In a recent study researchers claim that dolphins call to each other using distinctive whistles that serve as names. Dolphins use many different sounds for communication while hunting or playing. It turned out that when a dolphin sends a vocal message it includes a short tune that serves as its own signature whistle. When others reply they repeat this sequence to indicate who they answer to and also include their own unique sound signature. This method is very similar to the distant communication practices of humans where we include the name of the sender and the addressee for example in a postal letter or an e-mail.

Isn't it amazing that zoologists keep coming out with numerous astonishing proofs that animals have shocking behavioral similarities to us? Although we have managed to build a complex and rapidly developing civilization in the last few thousand centuries, it seems that our planet may still hold the potential to give rise to other highly intelligent species.

Read more about the study here.

Sunday-off: What are the origins of maths?

Is mathematics the inherent part of our reality or merely the human tool to explain the structure of the Cosmos? Most physicists claim that mathematics is the language of our Universe while neuroscientists think that it is only our cognitive interpretation of the world that surrounds us. Here is an exciting interview with four notable scientists on this issue.

Lifting mood by brain ultrasound

Researchers from the University of Arizona have found that applying ultrasound waves to specific areas of the brain appear to alter patients' moods. In their experiment they generated sound waves of 2 megahertz and passed them through patients' skulls for 30 seconds. The treatment caused improvements in mood like feeling lighter, happier and more attentive for up to 40 minutes. Researchers claim that this finding can lead to new treatments for psychological and psychiatric disorders. They are planning to develop a wearable machine for such purposes.

Do you like the idea of having a tool on your head that will lift your mood whenever you switch it on? It is definitely outrageous that the feeling that we chase in our whole life can be generated by pushing a button. We shall hope that this tool will be used only as a therapeutic tool and will never hit the commercial market.

Read more about the research here.

Cosmic source of Gold

Researchers from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics claim that the collision of two neutron stars is the likely source of precious metals. Neutron stars are remnants of massive stars. They are not that frequent in space and their collision is even less likely. It seems that the gold you wear around your fingers was formed in such a collision.

Alchemists of medieval times probably would have been discouraged if they knew that the formation of gold requires enormously huge energies that can only be created by the collision of two superdense celestial bodies of which one teaspoon has the mass of 900 Egyptian pyramids. However, if these collisions are infrequent that means gold is not a rare material only on Earth but in the whole cosmos as well. Now that you know the scientific background of gold creation you have yet another reason for being proud of the family jewels you inherited from grandma.

Read more about this new theory here.

Universe may not be expanding!

In his recently published paper theoretical physicist Christof Wetterich claims that it is possible that the Universe is not expanding but instead the mass of all the matter is growing continuously. If this is the case the redshift of distant stars could still be explained, moreover, the mystery of that baffling initial singularity of the cosmos present at the moment of the Big Bang could also be solved. However, even if Wetterich's conjecture is right, it is still difficult to prove it experimentally given that mass is a dimensional quantity and can be measured only relative to something else. Therefore, a universal growth of all the matter in the cosmos could not be measured.

Wetterich's theory implies that our Universe was not packed into an infinitely dense singular point at the initial phase of the Big Bang but gained its mass and has been growing it since the moment of its birth. This idea would mean a huge turn in cosmology and philosophy and would have far-reaching consequences in our view of the world. It will be worth following his future work and the reactions of the scientific community. Read more about Wetterich's theory here.

Planets' dance forms mandalic patterns

Buddhist mandala made of sand

Check out these beautiful patterns plotted by a charting software depicting the relative movement of planets of our solar system. They are mostly concentric shapes and natural ratios like the Fibonacci numbers determine their characteristics. Similar shapes can be found in the ornaments of different religions around the world. The most famous examples are Buddhist and Hindu mandalas that aim to represent the unity of the cosmos. Christianity and Islam too have their own concentric shapes in churches and mosques serving the purpose of fascinating the faithful and lifting the religious experience of churchgoers.

How come that the movement patterns of celestial bodies resemble so much the intuitive artwork of religious people of ancient times? Is it possible that our brains are in a way programmed to get spiritually excited by the orderly shapes of our Universe? If the aim of eastern mandalas is to represent the cosmos, they are actually not far from reality given that the universe can be partly described as the eternal dance of objects exposed to the force of gravity.

Rose window at Notre Dame, Paris

Mosaic at the top of the Gravemosc, Qait bay

Pleasant effects of sad music explained

Have you ever wondered how is it possible that we can enjoy sad music although we always try to avoid these negative emotions in our everyday life? According to researchers from Japan, sad music does not generate only negative feelings but they tend to transmit romantic vibes as well. This kind of ambivalence could be the reason for the pleasant feeling that we get from listening to gloomy melodies. Moreover, by listening to sad tunes we get the opportunity to play with the feeling of emotional anguish without having to face the uncomfortable and harmful effects that sadness has on us when it appears in our everyday life.

It seems that we are inclined to use our mind and emotions as a playground. Whether we consume pieces of art or use mind altering substances, the truth is that we are making sport of modifying neural processes going on in our brains. Some people put on a sad piece of music to help them combat their sorrow. Others pop some antidepressant pills. In both cases we get the same result - biochemical processes in the brain change for the better and happier. Which is acceptable and which is wrong? It seems to be a matter of personal choice where we set the barrier in the mind-altering game.

Video: Jaguar on hallucinogenic herb

Some weeks ago I posted about big cats and their strange habits. I mentioned that jaguars occasionally chew on a specific hallucinogenic plant and they seem to enjoy it pretty much. It was only today that I came across the video (thanks to IFLS) depicting this habit. Here it is.

A few days off

For the rest of the week Your Contemplator will be off for a hiking trip in the Carpathians. I'll be back on Sunday and will be eager to catch up with presenting You this week's contemplative news. By the way, our beloved researchers have been rather pragmatic for the last week. There were some surprising news about living organisms in cruel Lake Vostok but revolutionary findings that would have blown our minds did not come about. Hope next week will be more fruitful. :)

Depression comes with general goals

Researchers from Liverpool, UK have found that people with depression tend to have more generalised personal goals than non-depressed people. Those who set precise and rationally attainable goals in their lives have a lower risk to develop depression than those who set goals like "being happy, being successful".

The study suggests that it is worth to define clear objectives in order to realize when we succeed. This way we can be more content and happy with our achievements and avoid the feeling of living our life without aims. Read more about the research here.

One of Nature's constants may not be constant

Scientists from the University of New South Wales propose that one of the constants of Nature may not be constant in all circumstances. Using the Hubble Space Telescope they examined the value of alpha on a white dwarf, the very dense remnant of star in its final evolutionary state. Alpha is the fine-structure constant characterizing the strength of the electromagnetic interaction and is thought to be constant all around the Universe. However, these scientists propose that alpha may have a slightly different value in a dense gravitational field like the one on the surface of a white dwarf. Now they are going to engage in further and more precise measurements to back up their theory with solid evidence.

Physical constants are thought to be consistent all across the cosmos. Claiming their variability is a brave conjecture. Physicists have long been struggling to combine the Standard Model of particle physics with Einstein's general theory of relativity. The role and effects of gravitation on subatomic processes are not yet understood. Introducing gravitation into the existing quantum theories is believed to lead us to the Theory of Everything. If this research brings promising results that will move us one step closer to attain this ultimate goal. It will be worth following its progress.

Origin of Life - Salty soup gave rise to clustered molecules

Most scientists think that a cell wall is a prerequisite for the formation of complex biomolecules like nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) and proteins. Now researchers from the Netherlands discovered that these large biomolecules are able to cluster together spontaneously when the salt concentration is increased. This means that the predecessors of living cells could work without the need to be packed into a cell wall.

Increased salt concentration was a common phenomenon on our primordial Earth. Just think of small salty seas, lakes or even puddles getting detached from the ocean and being exposed to sunlight causing the rapid evaporation of water and the increase of saltiness. These pools may have given birth to the primal forms of life which were later taken back to the oceans by tides and floods to populate the whole hydrosphere on planet Earth.

I am a bit sorry for our creationist friends for missing to see the immense beauty of this whole miraculous process.

The Overconfident Neuroscience

The Guardian brought us a really exciting article about the book 'Brainwashed: The Seductive Appeal of Mindless Neuroscience' dealing with the role of neurobiology in the modern era. The authors try to raise our attention to our overconfidence in neuroscience. Although the appearance of functional MRI and brain imaging was a fascinating breakthrough, the public tends to give them too much credit. Brains undergoing emotions like love and attachment are shown on colorful screens and we instantly think that the mystery of these long studied feelings was finally solved in one fell swoop. However, our central nervous system is way more complex than that.

The authors also discuss the question of free will. If we agree with the concepts of biological and materialistic determinism we can always find an excuse by saying that we are the victims of the circumstances and blame our actions on causal processes going on in our head. Based on this, nobody should be sentenced for crimes for example. That does not seem to make much sense. However, if we accept the existence of free will we should see novel brain imaging results only as useful tools, not as ultimate achievements.

Read the whole article here.

Attending religious services increases well-being

Studies show that Christian and Jewish believers tend to have higher levels of happiness if they attend church and synagogue on a regular basis. The research proposes several reasons for this increased well-being including the social support offered by a religious community, religious messages that inspire optimism and good behavior, and positive emotions that can come from having a regular routine.

This study has a message for non-believers too. Even if you are not religious you can find support and happiness by creating a community suitable for discussing philosophical and moral issues from time to time. We may state that whether it is your friends, family or colleagues who you share your thoughts with, the main emphasis should be on mutual trust and openness among members.

Being stressed about stress is risky

A study examining more than 7000 civil servants concluded that those people who feel that their health is affected "a lot or extremely" by stress have double the risk of having a heart attack or dying from it compared with those who does not feel that stress has an effect on their health. There can be two possible reasons for that.

First and more viable explanation for doctors is that people may have an ability to feel the limits of their bodies and have an innate alarm system that alerts when the owner of that body should stop undertaking more stress. Second, people who are worried about living a stressful life can multiply the burden of stress by constantly focusing on it. This may induce negative feelings and attitudes which indeed may lead to a deteriorating health. At the same time those people who experience stress but are not anxious about its effects on their well-being may have a higher chance of getting away without negative consequences.

In either case the interconnectedness of body and mind seems obvious. Advocates of relaxation and meditation techniques usually emphasize that if you cannot solve a problem in your life, at least try not to focus on it all the time, you are still better off with that. These new findings may prove the validity of this concept.
Read more about the research here.

Rhodiola plant increases longevity, fights depression and fatigue

The root of an Asian plant called Rhodiola rosea has long been famous for its ability to fight depression and increase physical and mental energy. Last month researchers discovered that besides its known benefits the plant can also increase lifespan by 20% in case of fruit flies.

Fruit flies are a lot different from us in terms of genetic makeup so this finding does not imply straightway that the 20% is valid for humans too. However, given that this plant is a strong weapon against oxidative stress, we may suppose that it holds potential to increase human lifespan by years too. Rhodiola also inhibits monoamine oxidase (MAO) enzymes. The role of these enzymes is to break down neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine. By inhibiting MAO the level of these neurotransmitters will be higher in the brain. The plant also stimulates endorphin production. These neurotransmitters are magic components of our brain - high levels of them generate the feeling of well-being and relieve stress.

People over 100 years old often say that the key to long life is to live positively and avoid stress. Rhodiola induces this state artificially and seems to increase lifespan anyway. Does it mean that living a deliberately calm life or taking herbal drugs are all the same?

Read more here.

Key expert of Lakota language passed away

Teacher and author Albert White Hat was the man who kept the Native American Lakota language alive. This endangered language is only spoken by some 6000 people, yet it has a rich, varied and fascinating vocabulary with many words that have complex and nearly untranslatable meaning that can only be explained by whole sentences. Here is a short list of the most outstanding phrases.

In computer programming, one way to make the program code of a software more efficient is to make it more compact yet preserve its transparency. Natural languages work pretty much the same way. If the vocabulary of a language contains words with complex and nuanced meanings, users of that language are able to express their thoughts and feelings in a more intelligible and sophisticated fashion. This can have an impact on many aspects of life including relationships, professional life, arts and scientific progress as well. Based on this assumption, is it possible that the late success story of India can partly be attributed to the complexity and profusion of its ancient language, Sanskrit?

Read more fascinating words from all around the world here and practice Wabi-Sabi whenever you can.

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle gets on firmer ground

The extent to which the properties of a quantum system can be measured is described by physicist Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. To those new to the world of quantum physics, this principle is based on the very simple assumption that one can only observe a system or a phenomenon after having interfered with it by transmitting energy to the system. Subatomic particles, like electrons, are so sensitive that if you want to measure their position or energy by radiating the system (the atom) with electromagnetic waves (the same thing as lighting up a torch in a dark room to be able to look around and see what is in there), you will eventually knock out the electron from its "original" position and observe it somewhere else or with a different momentum (~energy).

The main implication of this theory is that we can only have a picture of the world we live in to a limited extent. We cannot say what happens beyond that limit, what was the exact energy and position of that electron before we observed it, how the atomic nucleus and subatomic particles really look like, and even cannot be sure that these things we call particles had existed at all before we engaged in their direct observation. Bizarre. Not only for us, but also for the physicists of the era when Heisenberg came up with this idea about the limitations of our observations. Since then the scientific society has been eager to prove that Heisenberg was wrong - without any success. Today's hot news on the issue is that the precise predictions of the principle still hold without any doubt. Read more about the current debate and the new findings here.

(For contemplators lost in Wikipedia's articles on modern physics, I would recommend the brilliant book of John Gribbin, In Search of Schrödinger's Cat)

Knowing when to quit and switch can lead to success

UK researchers propose that the success of an athlete depends on his or her ability to manage goals, skills, determination and motivation. The case of tennis player Andy Murray, who decided to quit the French Open in order to recuperate from his back injury until the start of Wimbledon, has proven that knowing when to disengage from smaller goals in favor of more important objectives is indeed an essential skill for achieving success. Although the article speaks about athletes only, this statement is undoubtedly true for all of us. Read more here.

Origin of Life - Role of UV clarified

Genesis is an exciting question. Many contemplators suffer with bridging the inorganic and the organic world in their philosophical train of thought. How could life arise from "dead", inorganic matter? Most religions have their own story for that. However, science has definitely proven to be an effective tool for answering this question for at least half a century.

In the grand research for the chemical origins of life the most well-known step is probably the Miller-Urey experiment. In this experiment a mixture of water, hydrogen, methane, and ammonia was cycled through an apparatus that delivered electrical sparks to the mixture. As an end-product the two researchers got a mixture of organic compounds, including amino acids, one of the building blocks of living organisms. Other important pillars of life include nucleobases and nucleotides. These molecules can also be produced by simulating the properties of Earth's atmosphere in its primordial stage in another experiment. In this experiment hydrogen cyanide is irradiated by UV light and as a result it forms an imidazole intermediate that is a key substance for the synthesis of the two types of molecules mentioned above. Scientists have not been able to describe the underlying mechanism so far, but now an international group of researchers succeeded in clarifying the role of UV radiation in the process.

The finding of these researchers is only a small step in the chase for shedding light on the complex process of abiogenesis. Although advocates of theist religions tend to claim the opposite, the birth of life is likely to be explained solely by the means of science. Experiments like the ones mentioned above explain the synthesis of complex organic molecules, while theories concerning self-replicating and autocatalytic chemical processes support the hypothesis that these molecules hold the potential to form chemical machines that can evolve into living cells. It seems that the birth of life does not have to be the result of some heavenly miracle but can be derived from the basic properties of matter.

Voynich manuscript may have a meaning

The Voynich manuscript is a 15th century text purchased by book dealer Wilfrid Voynich in 1912. It contains illustrations of unidentifiable plants, astrological diagrams and loads of text written in an unknown alphabet. The meaning and origin of the text are still unknown.

Many historians and cryptographers have so far deemed it a hoax. However, researchers from the University of Manchester examined the text by applying a technique based on word entropy. By measuring the frequency and the distribution of words along with other statistical and linguistic properties of the text, they concluded that chances are high that the manuscript was written in a real language and contains a secret message indeed .

Of course this finding does not imply that this secret message will be decoded in the near future as even the best professional cryptographers of the 20th century were unable to interpret the manuscript. Even so, due to the achievements of the UK research group, new investigations can be expected on this topic.

How can it be possible that the source of a 6-century-old text is still a mystery? Is it the work of a medieval swindler or an unknown civilization? Attributing the manuscript straightway to aliens or people of Atlantis would be too brave and phantasmagorical and would also be out of the scope of this blog. However, the mystery of the Voynich manuscript is still a question that boggles the contemplators' mind.

Read more about the research here.

Sunday-off: Don't forget today's Supermoon!

Scientists publish only on weekdays. It happens that some splashy news appear on Saturdays too, but you will find hardly any on Sundays. For this reason let me introduce my end-of-the-week column: Sunday-off. Under this heading I am going to post pictures, videos, music, hints and other fine stuff once in a week. Enjoy! :)

Today's Supermoon

You have probably heard enough times this week that today we are going to have the greatest Supermoon of the year. However, we can easily forget things at the last moment, that is why I remind You to grab your dogs, your kids or your partners and go out for a walk tonight to see the great round face of our old Auntie Moon.

Have a nice day and evening!

Epileptic seizures causing orgasmic bliss

Ecstatic epilepsy is a rarely occurring medical condition. Its symptoms are similar to ordinary epileptic seizures but with a twist - this uncommon disease gives people an intense feeling of indescribable bliss. Russian writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky was famous for having this condition and some historians assume that ecstatic seizures were responsible for the divine visions of Joan of Arc as well.

In this state of mind one can experience overwhelming insight, the feeling of hyperreality, tranquility, harmony with the world, and leaving behind their own self for a few moments. These experiences show striking similarities to those undertaken by meditators and psychedelic drug users.

Yesterday the NewScientist reported the story of a young woman who had this condition. She described the general psychological symptoms mentioned above but she also recalled a case when she was trapped into this pleasant state and felt that she could not escape. The feeling of helplessness made her panic. Beginner meditators occasionally have the same experience when the feeling of egolessness reaches them too early and unprepared. Artists who draw inspiration from beauty and sensory impressions can also suffer from the same kind of overexcitement. Does it mean that eternal bliss can be too much of a good thing? If it is so, it seems that those joyful moments that we constantly seek in life can only have value if they do not last too long.

Big Cats and Maslow's Pyramid

In my last post I proposed a brave theory that Maslow's model on the hierarchy of needs applies to animals as well. There is one species that demonstrates pretty many oddities concerning this question - leopards.

Ernest Hemingway writes in his famous short story, The Snows of Kilimanjaro:

“Kilimanjaro is a snow-covered mountain 19,710 feet high, and is said to be the highest mountain in Africa. Its western summit is called the Masai 'Ngaje Ngai', the House of God. Close to the western summit there is a dried and frozen carcass of a leopard
. No one has explained what the leopard was seeking at that altitude.” 

Hemingway's story is not a legend at all. In 1926 an English mountaineer, Dr Donald Latham, discovered the frozen and mummified corpse of a leopard on the crater rim, at a place that later became known as the Leopard Point. What could bring this creature above 5000 metres (around 16 000 feet) high? How is it possible that this animal literally climbed a mountain, fought altitude sickness, and died near the summit like an unlucky mountaineer? Some propose that the smell of meat carried by some climbers had led it to follow their trail. Others would rather believe in Hemingway's romantic explanation - the leopard was driven there solely by his curiosity.

Leopards' overseas relatives, jaguars also show some fascinating habits. According to one episode of BBC's "Weird Nature", they occasionally chew on the leaves of a certain plant containing stimulant and hallucinogenic substances. They seem to have a fun time hunting and playing around after the plant would "kick in". They also enjoy lying down under the woods and take pleasure in gazing at the canopy.

I do not intend to present these stories as something mystical at all. However, it is interesting that animals tend to pursue pleasurable or even self-realizing activities above their basic physiological and security needs which make up the basic layers of Maslow's pyramid.

As an epilogue I suggest you to watch this heartwarming video about a female leopard who nearly adopts a monkey cub.

Owner-dog relationship parallel to parent-child attachment

Scientists at the University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna have investigated the nature of relationships between dogs and their owners. It turned out that the owner-dog relationship shows significant similarities to the parent-child relationship in humans. Although dogs were in adult age, they behaved as if they were the offspring of their caregivers. Owners at the same time show the kind of care and attachment to their dogs that they have towards their own children.

We often hear stories about pups of different species growing up together in a zoo (or in the backyard of gangsters) who make lifelong ties that we would call friendship. It seems that living beings exempt from the harsh conditions of natural competition tend to seek love and attachment just as humans do. Can this prove that Maslow's pyramid applies to all higher order creatures on Earth?

Read more about the experiment here.

3-year-old deaf boy hears for the first time

The little Grayson was born completely deaf. His brain is lacking the auditory (or cochlear) nerves responsible for bridging the inner ears and the brain. Now at the age of three he was given the chance to participate in a research trial and receive an auditory brain stem implant. Following a successful surgery and the installment of a device, Grayson gained the ability to hear sounds for the first time in his life. His face lit up and his little mind was blown by the whole new world of auditory experience.

Our senses become activated at an unconscious primal stage of our development. Just think about how shocking it could be to receive an additional sense when you are already used to and feel comfortable with the existing ones.

Read more and watch video here.

Rock art reveals prehistoric American cosmology

Researchers from the University of Tennessee examined 94 rock art sites in the Cumberland Plateau, a section of the Appalachian Mountains. Carvings and paintings of these sites were created by different tribes of prehistoric Native Americans some 6000 years ago. Researchers came to the conclusion that these tribes had a unified three-layered cosmological view, similar to the "heaven-earth-hell" concept of European and Asian cults and religions.

It is interesting to see that ancient societies, although spatially isolated, came up with similar theories in cosmology. Is it possible that these belief systems are the results of natural human intuition?

Read more here.

Animal intelligence underestimated

Animal behaviorists occasionally come up with new pieces of evidence confirming that animals are indeed more intelligent than previously thought. Researchers at Bristol University have now proven that chickens have highly developed sensory capacities, numerical and logical thinking skills comparable to those of young children. Other animals like pigs and sheep are able to carry out some exercises just as well as monkeys.

Mankind has shown an enormous development in the last few hundred thousand years. However, it seems that other species are not lagging too much behind us. Subtracting humanity from Earth, does this planet still hold the potential to give rise to highly intelligent species that are capable of forming a developed civilization? If so, is it a general property of our Universe?

Read more here.

Four-quark particle found - May be entirely new form of matter

Physicists work eagerly to find all particles predicted by the Standard Model. However, our universe can sometimes trick us and spit out some entirely new forms of matter. That is what could have happened recently at the Belle experiment in Japan and the Beijing Spectrometer Experiment (BESIII) in China where a subatomic particle with four-quarks was found for the first time.

One may think that our understanding of the universe will become complete as we manage to find the missing pieces of the Standard Model. But what if we keep finding such exotic particles instead of the predicted ones? Should we rephrase our theories at some point in the future the same way as our brilliant scientists did at the dawn of the 20th century?

Read more here.